54–81. Soldiers of the Greek army were called hoplites. Snodgrass, A., "The Hoplite Reform and History," Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. From the moment Greeks started fighting with "bronze shields and in the phalanx," they must have regularly been drawn up in rank and file and not just crowded together. ", Strauss, Barry S. 2000. This established a lasting Macedonian hegemony over Greece, and allowed Phillip the resources and security to launch a war against the Persian Empire. The ancient Greek city-states developed a military formation called the phalanx, which were rows of shoulder-to-shoulder hoplites. [7] This counter formation was used by Themistocles in the Battle of Artemisium. [22], Melee, or hand-to-hand combat, occurred most often after the tight formation of the phalanx dispersed. The Athenians were at a significant disadvantage both strategically and tactically. The Greco-Persian Wars (499–448 BC) were the result of attempts by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great, and then his successor Xerxes I to subjugate Ancient Greece. At least in the early classical period, hoplites were the primary force; light troops and cavalry generally protected the flanks and performed skirmishing, acting as support troops for the core heavy infantry. Athens in fact partially recovered from this setback between 410–406 BC, but a further act of economic war finally forced her defeat. One way opponents countered the diekplous was by retreating their fleet into a tight circle with the hulls of their ships facing outward. Shipbuilders would also experience sudden increases in their production demands. Following the defeat of the Athenians in 404 BC, and the disbandment of the Athenian-dominated,Ancient Greece fell under the Spartan hegemony. With time the Ancient Greece Military forces in Ancient Greece became much more structured. Like the navy, a single line was used to establish a walking order to battle. led to the rise of the city-states (Poleis). Government influence Athens government didn't have a high value on their military like Sparta did because Athenian boys only started training at the age of eighteen and training only lasted for two years. Vincent Lopez is a student in Norwich University’s acclaimed Master of Arts in Military History program. Yet Athens in its fifth century bc heyday not only fought more than three times as many battles as Sparta, but actually enjoyed a slightly higher overall rate of combat success. Many city-states made their submission to him, but others did not, notably including Athens and Sparta. However, from the very beginning, it was clear that the Spartan hegemony was shaky; the Athenians, despite their crushing defeat, restored their democracy but just one year later, ejecting the Sparta-approved oligarchy. Greek naval actions always took place near the land so they could easily return to land to eat and to sleep, and allowing the Greek ships to stick to narrow waters to out-maneuver the opposing fleet. They were masters of the tactic known as the phalanx, which was a rectangular formation of … [3] This formation also provided the Greek fleet with protection by shielding the most vulnerable parts of the ships, which were the sides and the stern.[3]. 83–124. How to increase brand awareness through consistency; Dec. 11, 2020 ", Morrison, J.S. [19] These subunits worked as smaller pieces of an overall picture of military power. With the entire fleet alongside each other, there were more rams available to attack the opponent. [17] The arrows had an effective range of 160–170 meters and would inevitably produce a casualty when fired. The persuasive qualities of the phalanx were probably its relative simplicity (allowing its use by a citizen militia), low fatality rate (important for small city-states), and relatively low cost (enough for each hoplite to provide his own equipment). In order to outflank the isthmus, Xerxes needed to use this fleet, and in turn therefore needed to defeat the Greek fleet; similarly, the Greeks needed to neutralise the Persian fleet to ensure their safety. [6] Once one of the lines broke, the troops would generally flee from the field, chased by peltasts or light cavalry if available. In the aftermath, the Spartans were able to establish themselves as the dominant force in Greece for three decades. Anderson, J. K., Ancient Greek Horsemanship, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1961. The revenge of the Persians was postponed 10 years by internal conflicts in the Persian Empire, until Darius's son Xerxes returned to Greece in 480 BC with a staggeringly large army (modern estimates suggest between 150,000–250,000 men). Tactically the Peloponnesian war represents something of a stagnation; the strategic elements were most important as the two sides tried to break the deadlock, something of a novelty in Greek warfare. Alexander's fame is in no small part due to his success as a battlefield tactician; the unorthodox gambits he used at the battles of Issus and Gaugamela were unlike anything seen in Ancient Greece before. It also allowed a higher proportion of the soldiers to be actively engaged in combat at a given time (rather than just those in the front rank). Nevertheless, it was an important innovation, one which was developed much further in later conflicts. The tight circle prevented the Greek navy from infiltrating its opponent's squadron because if the navy used the diekplous, the galley would be encircled by its enemy and rammed. [25] This tactic became so well known that in 217 BC the Stratian army declined to pursue the Akarnanians during their retreat in fear that they would face an ambush. This 'combined arms' approach was furthered by the extensive use of skirmishers, such as peltasts. The city-states of southern Greece were too weak to resist the rise of the Macedonian kingdom in the north. From the very beginning, the Athenians were compelled to fight for their new democracy. Although the diekplous is considered to be one of the most effective maneuvers in naval warfare,[6] it was only successfully used in three battles- Lade, Chios, and Side. Neither side could afford heavy casualties or sustained campaigns, so conflicts seem to have been resolved by a single set-piece battle. ), War and Society in the Greek World, London: Routledge, 1993, pp. Spartans instead relied on slaves called helots for civilian jobs such as farming. Hanson, Victor D., The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000. However, the lightly armored Persian infantry proved no match for the heavily armored hoplites, and the Persian wings were quickly routed. The age of the phalanx may be traced back to Sumeria in the 25th century BCE, through Egypt , and finally appearing in Greek literature through Homer in the 8th century BCE (and since has been generally associated with Greek warfare strategy, the name itself coming from the Greek … 146–176. Greek history is one of the most well-known stories across the world. The phalanx formed the core of ancient Greek militaries. In fact, Athenians developed the largest and most sophisticated war machine in all of Greece and applied tactic… The remaining Athenian fleet was thereby forced to confront the Spartans, and were decisively defeated. Several similarities existed between them, suggesting that the mindset of the Greeks flowed naturally between the two forms of fighting. Regardless of where it developed, the model for the hoplite army evidently quickly spread throughout Greece. They would use different formations and tactics in wars. After the loss of Athenian ships and men in the Sicilian expedition, Sparta was able to foment rebellion amongst the Athenian league, which therefore massively reduced the ability of the Athenians to continue the war. 85, 1965, pp. An uncommon tactic of Ancient Greek warfare, during the hoplite battles, was the use of ambush. The Athenian Trireme The Athenian trireme was a superfast galley that was different from anything else at that time. One of the most effective and enduring military formations in ancient warfare was that of the Greek phalanx. I've been considering for some time now which faction I will play as my first go and the Athenians certainly were one of my first thoughts, my problem with them is that I don't know much about their military, I know they were famed for their navy but i know very little about their land units. Only when a Persian force managed to outflank them by means of a mountain track was the allied army overcome; but by then Leonidas had dismissed the majority of the troops, remaining with a rearguard of 300 Spartans (and perhaps 2000 other troops), in the process making one of history's great last stands. Along with the rise of the city-state evolved a brand new style of warfare and the emergence of the hoplite. Raising such a large army had denuded Athens of defenders, and thus any attack in the Athenian rear would cut off the Army from the City. He took the development of the phalanx to its logical completion, arming his 'phalangites' (for they were assuredly not hoplites) with a fearsome 6 m (20 ft) pike, the 'sarissa'. Hanson, Victor D., "Hoplite Battle as Ancient Greek Warfare: When, Where, and Why?" These developments ushered in the period of Archaic Greece (800–480 BC). Marathon demonstrated to the Greeks the lethal potential of the hoplite, and firmly demonstrated that the Persians were not, after all, invincible. Prezi’s Big Ideas 2021: Expert advice for the new year; Dec. 15, 2020. This alliance thus removed the constraints on the type of armed forces that the Greeks could use. Certainly, by approximately 650 BC, as dated by the 'Chigi vase', the 'hoplite revolution' was complete. At one point, the Greeks even attempted an invasion of Cyprus and Egypt (which proved disastrous), demonstrating a major legacy of the Persian Wars: warfare in Greece had moved beyond the seasonal squabbles between city-states, to coordinated international actions involving huge armies. "Democracy, Kimon, and the Evolution of the Athenian Naval Tactics in the Fifth Century BC." The hoplite was an infantryman, the central element of warfare in Ancient Greece. The Spartans did not feel strong enough to impose their will on a shattered Athens. Regard for classical Athenians as fighters in general has lagged behind their fame as creators of democracy and masters of aesthetic culture. The Athenian military was the military force of Athens, one of the major city-states (poleis) of Ancient Greece. Konijnendijk, Roel, Classical Greek Tactics: A Cultural History. They were known for their courage and strength. [13] The usual target during this attack was the stern, where the steering oars were located, or the side of the ship where the rowing oars were. The increased manpower and financial resources increased the scale, and allowed the diversification of warfare. When this was combined with the primary weapon of the hoplite, 2–3 m (6.6–9.8 ft) long spear (the doru), it gave both offensive and defensive capabilities. [5] One reason why the tactic became less useful was that enemies quickly developed defensive tactics against it. When in combat, the whole formation would consistently press forward trying to break the enemy formation; thus, when two phalanx formations engaged, the struggle essentially became a pushing match,[4] in which, as a rule, the deeper phalanx would almost always win, with few recorded exceptions. The Spartan hegemony would last another 16 years, until, at the Battle of Leuctra (371) the Spartans were decisively defeated by the Theban general Epaminondas. The arrows of the seagoing archers were deadly and efficient and could decrease the enemy’s fighting power considerably by picking off officers and men on the enemy ship. [2] The Phalanx also became a source of political influence because men had to provide their own equipment to be a part of the army. These hoplites (named after their large shields or hoplons) became both a major political and military force throughout Greece. Although alliances between city states occurred before this time, nothing on this scale had been seen before. The Athenian general Iphicrates had his troops make repeated hit and run attacks on the Spartans, who, having neither peltasts nor cavalry, could not respond effectively. In the manner of neighboring city-states the backbone of the Athenian military on land was the hoplite. As the massive Persian army moved south through Greece, the allies sent a small holding force (c. 10,000) men under the Spartan king Leonidas, to block the pass of Thermopylae whilst the main allied army could be assembled. The Thebans acted with alacrity to establish a hegemony of their own over Greece. A fighting force that was undefeated for almost three centuries, the skill and bravery of the Spartan army was unmatched in all the rest of Greece, and the ancient world. [12] Although each ship had a ram, the ship needed to have a skilled crew to be successful with this tactic. Along with the rise of the city-states evolved a new style of warfare: the hoplite phalanx. Anderson, J. K., Military Theory and Practice in the Age of Xenophon, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1970. Almost simultaneously, the allied fleet defeated the remnants of the Persian navy at Mycale, thus destroying the Persian hold on the islands of the Aegean. During the early hoplite era cavalry played almost no role whatsoever, mainly for social, but also tactical reasons, since the middle-class phalanx completely dominated the battlefield. In the third phase of the war however the use of more sophisticated stratagems eventually allowed the Spartans to force Athens to surrender. Van der Heyden, A. Trained thoroughly, the hoplites were as skilled at their melee combat as the Athenian oarsmen were at their precision ramming and rowing. Alexander’s Macedonian army had spears called sarissas that were 18 feet long, far longer than the 6–9 foot Greek dory. The Macedonian phalanx was a supreme defensive formation, but was not intended to be decisive offensively; instead, it was used to pin down the enemy infantry, whilst more mobile forces (such as cavalry) outflanked them. They were primarily armed as spear-men and fought in a phalanx (see below). The most known version of this tactic occurred during the Battle of Dyme in 218 BC, when one side pretended to retreat from the fighting and enticed their enemy to follow them into an ambush. Sparta specialized in land conflict, and it was considered widely as the best and leading force of the Greek army. The diekplous was an ancient Greek naval operation used to infiltrate the enemy's line-of-battle. Athens’ defeat was perhaps the worst casualty in a war that crippled Greek military strength, and thus the most culturally advanced Greek state was brought into final eclipse. This allowed diversification of the allied armed forces, rather than simply mustering a very large hoplite army. With revolutionary tactics, King Phillip II brought most of Greece under his sway, paving the way for the conquest of "the known world" by his son Alexander the Great. For example, during the Peloponnesian War, there were 4 archers and 10 marines on the deck of a vessel. The Greek wings then turned against the elite troops in the Persian centre, which had held the Greek centre until then. Shock tactics were a variable in Greco-Roman warfare, not the variable that always determined the outcome of ancient battles. They were a force to be reckoned with. The maneuver consisted of Greek ships, in line abreast, rowing through gaps between its enemy's ships. [4] This battle formation was also so successful for the Greek navy that their opponents began to utilize it as well. Pericles predicted that Athens would prevail over Sparta due to their amount of resources, money and men (Ancient Military, 2011). Over the top of this, they thrust with long spears. Triremes were equipped with a large piece of timber sheathed in an envelope of bronze, located in the front of each ship. The war (or wars, since it is often divided into three periods) was for much of the time a stalemate, punctuated with occasional bouts of activity. The Greek navy functioned much like the ancient Greek army. Once firmly unified, and then expanded, by Phillip II, Macedon possessed the resources that enabled it to dominate the weakened and divided states in southern Greece. Casualties were slight compared to later battles, amounting to anywhere between 5 and 15% for the winning and losing sides respectively,[7] but the slain often included the most prominent citizens and generals who led from the front. This is one of the first known examples of both the tactic of local concentration of force, and the tactic of 'refusing a flank'. Such was the reputation of the Spartans army that scholars and tacticians in the present day still keenly study the battles and training methods of this army in universities and military academies around the world. Darius was already ruler of the cities of Ionia, and the wars are taken to start when they rebelled in 499 BC. Wheeler, E., "The General as Hoplite," in Hanson, Victor D., (ed. Morrison, J.S. The ships would require more marines because the constricted water would prevent the use of typical tactics, and would increase the risk of the ship being boarded by the enemy.[14]. Thus, the whole war could be decided by a single field battle; victory was enforced by ransoming the fallen back to the defeated, called the 'Custom of the Dead Greeks'. Firstly, the Spartans permanently garrisoned a part of Attica, removing from Athenian control the silver mine which funded the war effort. The Theban hegemony would be short-lived however. The Greek 'Dark Age' drew to a close as a significant increase in population allowed urbanized culture to be restored, which Some descriptions of the testudo discriminate betw… One of the most prominent formations of … Although by the end of the Theban hegemony the cities of southern Greece were severely weakened, they might have risen again had it not been for the ascent to power of the Macedonian kingdom in northern Greece. led many to attribute Athenian military success to their political system. Since there were no decisive land-battles in the Peloponnesian War, the presence or absence of these troops was unlikely to have affected the course of the war. They carried round shields fixed by a pair of straps to their left arms. The scale and scope of warfare in Ancient Greece changed dramatically as a result of the Greco-Persian Wars, which marked the beginning of Classical Greece (480–323 BC). Although tactically there was little innovation in the Peloponessian War, there does appear to have been an increase in the use of light infantry, such as peltasts (javelin throwers) and archers. To fight the enormous armies of the Achaemenid Empire was effectively beyond the capabilities of a single city-state. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. During the collision, the wooden paddles shatter and often skew the rower and the men surrounding him. The archers, which wielded longbows, would fire waves of arrows before the battle, attempting to cut the enemy numbers down prior battle. The rise of the Macedonian Kingdom is generally taken to signal the beginning of the Hellenistic period, and certainly marked the end of the distinctive hoplite battle in Ancient Greece. Many Greek traditions and cultures have become immortalized in the works of its literary giants and its philosophical minds. [3] While the ramming itself may have caused only a few casualties to the enemy, the majority of the casualties occurred later as the vessel began to sink, forcing its crew into the water. Sekunda, Nick, Elite 7: The Ancient Greeks, Oxford: Osprey, 1986. The battle is famous for the tactical innovations of the Theban general Epaminondas. [14], Marines, or epibatai, were the secondary weapon for the Greek navy after the ram. 110–122. Van Wees, Hans, Greek Warfare: Myths and Realities, London: Duckworth, 2005. [3] The battle line consisted of ships lined up side by side, facing the enemy. ), Atlas of the Classical World, London: Nelson, 1959. Krentz, Peter, "Deception in Archaic and Classical Greek Warfare," in Hans van Wees, War and Violence in Ancient Greece, London and Swansea: Duckworth and the Classical Press of Wales, 2000, pp. "Further Thoughts on Trireme Tactics. This inevitably reduced the potential duration of campaigns, as citizens would need to return to their professions (especially in the case of farmers). This was the first true engagement between a hoplite army and a non-Greek army. The files were regularly brought up on the left, the “shield hand” so t… The eventual triumph of the Greeks was achieved by alliances of many city-states (the exact composition changing over time), allowing the pooling of resources and division of labour. However, the Spartans suffered a large setback when their fleet was wiped out by a Persian Fleet at the Battle of Cnidus, undermining the Spartan presence in Ionia. [clarification needed]. [25] Campaigns would therefore often be restricted to summer. The Athenian dominated Delian League of cities and islands extirpated Persian garrisons from Macedon and Thrace, before eventually freeing the Ionian cities from Persian rule. The scale and scope of warfare in Ancient Greece changed dramatically as a result of the Greco-Persian Wars. A united Macedonian empire did not long survive Alexander's death, and soon split into the Hellenistic kingdoms of the Diadochi (Alexander's generals). As the Thebans attempted to expand their influence over Boeotia, they inevitably incurred the ire of Sparta. Campaigns were often timed with the agricultural season to impact the enemies or enemies' crops and harvest. Military strategy and tactics are essential to the conduct of warfare. Epaminondas deployed tactics similar to those at Leuctra, and again the Thebans, positioned on the left, routed the Spartans, and thereby won the battle. They also restored the capability of organized warfare between these Poleis (as opposed to small-scale raids to acquire livestock and grain, for example). Evolving from armed bands led by a warrior leader, city militia of part-time soldiers, providing their own equipment and perhaps including all the citizens of the city-state or polis, began to move warfare away from the control of private individuals and into the realm of the state. These changes greatly increased the number of casualties and the disruption of Greek society. Alexander’s core unit in the phalanx was the syntagma, normally 16 men deep. However, these kingdoms were still enormous states, and continued to fight in the same manner as Phillip and Alexander's armies had. Failing that, a battle degenerated into a pushing match, with the men in the rear trying to force the front lines through those of the enemy. Sileraioi were also a group of ancient mercenaries most likely employed by the tyrant Dionysius I of Syracuse. ), Hoplites: The Classical Greek Battle Experience, London: Routledge, 1993. ), Hoplites, London: 1991, pp. Pritchett, Kendrick W., The Greek State at War, 5 Vols., Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1975–1991. The early encounters, at Nemea and Coronea were typical engagements of hoplite phalanxes, resulting in Spartan victories. This page was last edited on 5 December 2020, at 16:50. It was largely similar to other armies of the region. [2] However, at first sight of enemy ships, the Greek navy would turn to starboard or port to form its line for battle. Although alliances between city-states were commonplace, the scale of this league was a novelty, and the first time that the Greeks had united in such a way to face an external threat. The two phalanxes would smash into each other in hopes of quickly breaking the enemy force's line. After the war, ambitions of many Greek states dramatically increased. The war petered out after 394 BC, with a stalemate punctuated with minor engagements. The Theban left wing was thus able to crush the elite Spartan forces on the allied right, whilst the Theban centre and left avoided engagement; after the defeat of the Spartans and the death of the Spartan king, the rest of the allied army routed. in Hans van Wees, War and Violence in Ancient Greece, London and Swansea: Duckworth and the Classical Press of Wales, 2000, pp. The visionary Athenian politician Themistocles had successfully persuaded his fellow citizens to build a huge fleet in 483/82 BC to combat the Persian threat (and thus to effectively abandon their hoplite army, since there were not men enough for both). [24] When light-armed forces began to be used, ambushing became a recognized scheme. The fractious nature of Ancient Greek society seems to have made continuous conflict on this larger scale inevitable. Because hoplites were all protected by their own shield and others’ shields and spears, they were relatively safe as long as the formation didn't break. [4] This maneuver was known as the Othismos or "push." They were also one of the greatest armies/naval forces in ancient times. The oarsman rowing the ship needed to accurately hit the target, and then be able to quickly dislodge the weapon before the enemy ship sunk. The rise of Macedon and her successors thus sounded the death knell for the distinctive way of war found in Ancient Greece; and instead contributed to the 'superpower' warfare which would dominate the ancient world between 350 and 150 BC. Hoplites were armored infantrymen, armed with spears and shields, and the phalanx was a formation of these soldiers with their shields locked together and spears pointed forward. The periplous consisted of the Greek navy "sailing around" the enemy's line. With more resources available, he was able to assemble a more diverse army, including strong cavalry components. This brought the rebels to terms, and restored the Spartan hegemony on a more stable footing. If battle was refused by one side, it would retreat to the city, in which case the attackers generally had to content themselves with ravaging the countryside around, since the campaign season was too limited to attempt a siege. Set-piece battles during this war proved indecisive and instead there was increased reliance on naval warfare, and strategies of attrition such as blockades and sieges. (1987-10-01). It scouted, screened, harassed, outflanked and pursued with the most telling moment being the use of Syracusan horse to harass and eventually destroy the retreating Athenian army of the disastrous Sicilian expedition 415-413 B.C. In an attempt to bolster the Thebans' position, Epaminondas again marched on the Pelopennese in 362 BC. Warfare occurred throughout the history of Ancient Greece, from the Greek Dark Ages onward. At the decisive Battle of Leuctra (371 BC), the Thebans routed the allied army. The Delian League (hereafter 'Athenians') were primarily a naval power, whereas the Peloponnesian League (hereafter 'Spartans') consisted of primarily land-based powers. With this evolution in warfare, battles seem to have consisted mostly of the clash of hoplite phalanxes from the city-states in conflict. Tactically, the hoplites were very vulnerable to attacks by cavalry[citation needed], and the Athenians had no cavalry to defend the flanks. For instance, the Agrianes from Thrace were well-renowned peltasts, whilst Crete was famous for its archers. When exactly the phalanx developed is uncertain, but it is thought to have been developed by the Argives in their early clashes with the Spartans. The second Persian invasion is famous for the battles of Thermopylae and Salamis. 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Became less useful was that enemies quickly developed defensive tactics against it 342!, during the hoplite battles, was fought between the Athenian navy was also successful... And Fourth Centuries B.C, during an attack using the ram, Spartans! '' in John Hackett, ( ed of Eurymedon all of their military maneuvers 499.... Presented a shield wall and a non-Greek army undoubtedly part of Attica, removing Athenian! This larger scale inevitable and shields to squeeze even more money from her allies, the Greek phalanx themselves... Was last edited on 7 January 2021, at 16:50 battles seem have. Use small swords in the works athenian military tactics its literary giants and its philosophical minds phalanx. To confront the Spartans, and the man on his left arm, which could a... Firstly, the ram, the crew also sheared the enemy 's ships Greece under his dominion would! Greek wings then turned against the Persian army thus removed the constraints on the deck of a hoplite,... Macedonian style phalanx which prevailed throughout Greece c. 40,000 hoplites decisively defeated the of! [ 19 ] these subunits worked as smaller pieces of an overall picture of military power Achaemenid was... War left Sparta as the Thebans the deck of a shield-wall by an army tactic the Greeks performed shields... Citizens with other occupations, warfare in Ancient Greece changed dramatically as a first-rate power in..